The Sicilian Squill

Sicilian squill - Scilla sicula 

The Sicilian squill is a perennial plant endemic to Malta, Sicily and Calabria in southern Italy. 

The plant grows from an underground bulb that can survive in shallow soils in valleys garigue and maquis. In Sicily and mainland Italy it is a very rare species. In Malta it used to be considered as rare but nowadays it seems to have increased and is considered as a scarce plant. In fact it does seem to be increasing. 

A few days ago I found it growing in good numbers in a valley along the south Maltese coast. In one area I found a patch of soil in which there were more than thirty plants in flower and many others plants still to flower.

The flowers are light bluish grey. Sometimes they are so light that they are nearly white. The inflorescence consists of small flowers growing around a short stem creating a pyramidal shape.   

In Maltese the Sicilian squill is known as għansar ikħal.

The scientific name of this species is Scilla sicula. The Scillas are found mostly in the hot arid regions of the Mediterranean.

Scilla is derived from the Greek word for ‘to hurt’ or ‘harm’. The name was given to this genus because of the poisonous nature of the bulbs. It is also similar to Scylla a mythical twelve-headed sea monster which in ancient times was believed to live opposite Charybdis a vortex from hell. The Greeks believed that Scylla and Charybdis lived in the Straits of Messina. When navigating through the dangerous straits Greek sailors had to decide whether to sail close to Scylla or Charybdis.

This article was published in The Times of Malta on 27 March 2014.

Emblem of hope

The hawthorn

Hawthorns are large bushes or small trees that belong to the rose family and are native in Europe, Asia and North America. 

These trees y are an important source of food plants for birds and insects. and are often planted by naturalists to attract wildlife.

Hawthorns are at their best in spring and autumn, most pictures of these small trees show the trees in autumn when their branches are laden with small apple-like fruit. 

The fruit is beautiful to look at but its function is not to please us but to attract thrushes and other birds and entice them to eat the fruit so that they would help disperse the seeds. 

Same is true in spring. The pleasant fragrance released by the beautiful white flowers of the hawthorn attracts large numbers of insects which are important for their pollination.

The name hawthorn is now used for all species in this group of plants but it was originally used only for one species that is common throughout most of Europe including Malta.

In Maltese it is called żagħrun. This species grows wildly in the Maltese countryside but is usually noticed only in autumn.

A less common species, the Crete hawthorn, is known in Maltese as għanzalor. 

Although this species is found in other Mediterranean countries it is not known whether it is indigenous to the Maltese islands as it might have been brought and planted here for its fruit. 

Sometimes one can also meet hybrids which are known in Maltese as għanżalor bagħal.

The hawthorn was commonly used in traditional medicine and is still being studied as a source of antioxidants and other phytochemicals which can be used as a cure for a number of medical conditions including cardiac insufficiency. 

The fruit can be made into jellies, jams and syrups and to add flavour to brandy. The petals can also be used in salads.

It is inevitable that such a popular plant would have many important folk traditions surrounding it. It is the emblem of hope and in parts of Britain and Ireland it was considered unlucky to uproot it. 

This article was published in The Times on 09.05.2012

Tree mallow

Tree mallow

In Malta several species of mallow are found growing wild. They are known as ħobbejz, a word of Arabic origin meaning small loaf.

The name was presumably given to it because of the seed pods which have the shape of a loaf. A similar name is used for the seed pods in Jersey where they are known as “petit pains”.

The English name mallow comes from Old English malwe which itself comes from the Latin word malva. 

The Latin name is itself derived either from an old Greek word for yellow or from a Hebrew word which sounds like the Maltese word melħ and which like the Maltese word means salty.

In 1859 the French name for mallow, mauve, started to be used for a colour.

This plant should be instantly recognizable, yet, most people hardly notice it growing along roadsides and in abandoned fields especially close to the coast. It can grow up to two metres high with strong woody trunk which in Malta would qualify it as a small tree.

It has large leaves and from March to June unmistakable brightly coloured flowers. It grows along the coasts of Western Europe and the Mediterranean as far east as Greece. It is often very common on islands.

The tree mallow (ħobbejża tas-siġra) can grow in environments with high salinity. Like the tamarisk tree, known in Maltese as bruka, it can survive in these difficult conditions because it is able to excrete salt through glands on its leaves.

In many parts of Europe the leaves of the tree mallow were used to make poultices which were used to treat sprains and burns and in some places they are still used as animal fodder. 

They have also been used as an alternative to toilet paper.

In the Middle East the leaves are used in a traditional Arab dish known as khubeza. 

This article was published in The Times on 02.05.2012

The star of Bethlehem

Plant and animal names are a fascinating subject and can be a good topic for research and studies. 

The large star of Bethlehem, a spring-flowering plant, is a case in point.

In Maltese this flower is known as ħalib it-tajr kbir, a distinctive name for a beautiful flower but this is probably not the name country people used when referring to it. 

It is also known as ħara taċ-ċawl meaning jackdaws’ faeces. 

A hundred years ago such a name would have been considered as too rude to be used in print. 

The authors of a book on Maltese flora written in the early 20^th century left the name of this species out from their book. 

Sometime later somebody coined a new name by using its scientific name Ornithogalum and translated it into Maltese. 

Ornithogalum is made up of two Greek words ornis meaning bird and gala meaning milk  a name given to it because of its white flowers and because ‘birds’ milk’ was used by the Romans to describe wonderful things, hence ħalib it-tajr.

The white flowers of the large star of Bethlehem open on a stalk that is about thirty centimtres high which is just tall enough for the flowers to stand above the surrounding vegetation. 

It belongs to a family of bulbous plants found mostly in Europe and southern Africa. The family consists of about 150 species although not all are large and showy as this species.

Two other species, which also flower in spring, can be found in the Maltese islands. Both are much smaller.

The lesser star of Bethlehem known in Maltese as ħalib it-tajt skars was believed to be extinct but was found again less than ten years ago near Buskett. The other species, the southern star of Bethlehem, ħalib it-tajr żgħir in Maltese, is frequently found in rocky areas especially in late spring when much of the vegetation has dried up. 

This article was published in The Times on 25.04.2012

The endemic spider orchid

The Ophrys melitensis or Maltese spider orchid (brimba sewda) is one of twenty four species of plants endemic to the Maltese islands.

It is one of a small number of insect orchids that flower in spring. This orchid has a velvety reddish brown petal with variable metallic blue markings in the centre of it.

Another endemic orchid is the Maltese pyramidal orchid (orkida piramidali ta’ Malta) but the best known Maltese endemic is Malta’s national plant, the Maltese rock centaury (widnet il-baħar). 

It was first described by Stefano Zerafa a Maltese doctor with a keen interest in the botany of the Maltese islands.

The word endemic is often confused with indigenous. An indigenous species is a plant or animal that is native in a particular place. The opposite of indigenous is non-native. 

In the Maltese countryside we find many species of non-native species including the Cape sorrel (ħaxixa Ingliża) a native of South Africa which was introduced in Malta in the early 19^th Century.

Endemism on the other hand means that a species is found in a defined area. Thus Maltese endemic plants and animals are found in Malta and nowhere else in the world.

 There are also regional endemics. In the case of Malta these would be restricted to Malta and some small neighbouring islands such as Lampedusa, and Pantelleria or Sicily.

Many endemic species are found on islands as a result of biological isolation which allows a species to evolve separately and differently from the same species in another area. 

The number of endemic species in the Maltese islands is lower than on other Mediterranean islands. 

This is probably a result of millennia of human pressure which must have led to the extinction of many species.

Endemic species are considered as internationally important. 

Because of their restricted range they are often in danger of extinction or given a vulnerable status are often protected by means of national and international legislation. 

This article was published in The Times on 11.04.2012

Plant that looks like a lamb’s tail

The small white flowers grow on a columnar stalk that looks like a lamb’s tail hence its Maltese name, denb il-ħaruf abjad.

The flowers are so small that to appreciate the beauty of this flower you should move in close and if possible use a magnifying glass to study the details of the individual flowers.

The white mignonette grows in Europe, Asia and North Africa but has also been introduced in the Americas and Australia. It is now also cultivated as a garden plant. 

Garden varieties can grow up to a metre high but the wild plants found in the Maltese islands hardly ever grow half as tall. 

This species grows mainly in disturbed habitats and is commonly found throughout the Maltese islands. It can be seen flowering between December and May.

Mignonettes were grown in Victorian England in pots and placed on windowsills to counteract the noxious smell of the city air with their scent. In Roman times the plants were used to produce a sedative and to treat bruises. An oil, extracted from the flowers, is used in perfumery.

The yellow mignonette, a species closely related to the white was also of use. A yellow dye called weld was produced from its roots as far back as 3,000 years ago. Dye production stopped at the turn of the 20^th century when cheaper synthetic dyes became available.

The yellow mignonette is also found in the Maltese countryside but unlike its relative it is very rare. In Maltese it is known as denb il-ħaruf isfar. If you are lucky you can find this plant in flower in April and May.

Both species are rich in nectar and pollen and attract large numbers of butterflies and bees. 

This article was published in The Times on 28.02.2012

Scented Maltese stocks

The Maltese stocks is a special plant because like the national plant (the Maltese centaury – Widnet il-baħar) it is endemic to the Maltese islands. It is known in Maltese as Ġiżi ta’ Malta, because it not found growing wild in any other country. 

The Maltese stocks is not considered as a separate species but as a subspecies flowers from March to May. Another race which is not indigenous to the Maltese islands, the garden stocks (Ġiżi komuni) was introduced in Malta as a garden plant but can be found growing wild in a number of areas especially on the fortifications at Valletta, Floriana, Tignè and Manoel Island. 

The Maltese race was first described by a local and two foreign botanists in 1988.

It is a perennial plant belonging to the mustard family. It is very rare in Malta but less rare in Gozo. It is an endangered species and is protected by law.

Other species of stocks can be found in the Maltese islands. 

The Mediterranean stocks, known in Maltese as Gizi tal-baħar, is an annual plant with pale violet flowers. Until 20 years ago it grew mostly in disturbed ground along the extreme east coast of the Malta but has now spread to other areas especially along the Sliema, San Giljan and Baħar iċ-Ċagħaq coast and is much more common than it used to be. 

The increase in range probably started by the dispersion of the seeds when a strong east wind blew them across the Grand Harbour to the other side of the Valletta peninsula from where it continued to expand its range further west. 

This species has an interesting mode of dispersion as, when the seeds have become ripe, the plant breaks off at the base and tumbles in the wind leaving a trail of seeds along the way.

Another species is the night-scented stocks (ġiżi tal-lejl) which is non-indigenous and rare. 

This species is of Eurasian origin and is often grown in gardens, especially in cooler regions, mainly for its pleasant scent which is most noticeable during the evening and at night.

This article was published in The Times on 21.03.2012

Bright Red and Christmassy

Poinsettias grow as small trees in Maltese countryside

The spurge family is made up of about 2,000 species of flowering plants which produce a milk-like liquid which exudes from the plant whenever it is damaged. 

About 20 species are found in the Maltese islands although not all are indigenous. The best known species is the poinsettia. 

In Maltese it is called punsejetta although many refer to it as the Christmas flower. 

The poinsettia is native to Central America and was named after Joel Roberts Poinsett, the first United States Minister to Mexico who was also an amateur botanist. Poinsett found the plant during one of his visits to Mexico and sent samples to his country.

 In the Maltese islands poinsettias can be found growing as small trees in the countryside especially in fields close to farmhouses.

The eye-catching, large, red ‘flower’ is not a flower but a bract of leaves with small flowers in the middle. To turn red the leaves require at least twelve hours of darkness for at least five days in a row hence the ‘flowering’ during the Christmas period. 

As a result of this the plant has become a very popular Christmas decoration and present. The cultivation of poinsettias has become a large industry. Large scale cultivation started about a hundred years ago in the United States and has now spread to many other parts of the world including Europe.

Many wrongly believe that the poinsettia is very poisonous. Such a belief is understandable because the latex of other spurges can be toxic. The toxicity ranges from slightly irritating to fatal. 

Six to eight seeds of the castor oil tree (riġnu), another member of the spurge family, are enough to kill an adult. The poison found tin the seeds, ricin, in 1978 was used by the Bulgarian secret police in London to kill Bulgarian dissident Georgi Markov. 

The caterpillars of spurge hawkmoths which feed on the leaves of spurges are brightly coloured because their body assimilates the poisons from the leaves they feed on which provides them with protection from predators. 

This article was published in The Times on 04.01.12

The healing field marigold

The field marigold is a member of the daisy family. It is native to central and southern Europe including the Maltese islands. 

It has now been introduced in many countries throughout the world in some of places it is considered as a pest. 

In Malta we find two subspecies of field marigold one of which even exists in two varieties. 

This makes identification of this species somewhat confusing a situation which is not made any easier by the fact that the daisy family which is made up of over 20,000 species is the largest plant family. In Malta the daisy family is represented by about 120 species.

The two races of field marigold are known in Maltese as suffejra tar-raba’ and suffejra kbira tar-raba’. The variety being shown in the picture has been named suffejra tar-raba’ ta’ ġiex kuluri.

The field marigold is widely cultivated as a garden plant but it is better known for its medicinal properties. 

It is said to have antibacterial and anti-inflammatory properties and has been used extensively to heal wounds. It is believed that its anti-bacterial properties are partially a result of the structure of its sugar which stimulates the body’s immune system. 

To heal minor wounds the leaves and petals can be ground or crushed into a paste, mixed with water and applied to the wounds. The flowers have also been used to treat stomach ulcers and gastrointestinal problems for hundreds of years.

Plant identification is an interesting and sometimes challenging task. Until the invention of modern pharmaceuticals most people interested in plants were pharmacists and doctors who studied botany because many plants were used for medical purposes. 

Botanists today still study plants because of their medicinal value but a growing number of enthusiasts are taking an interest in wild plants as a hobby. 

This article was written in The Times on 30.11.11

The moonflower – an alien species

The moonflower is another alien species that first came to Malta as a cultivated garden plant and which is now thriving in the Maltese countryside. Although it is not as common as some other alien species such as the ubiquitous Cape sorrel (ħaxixa ngliża), when present, it is very noticeable because of its large leaves and white or pink flowers.

The flowers of the moonflower open at night and close early in the morning. Their light colour, large size and fragrance make it easier for the flowers to be seen in the dark especially by moths particularly the hawk moths.

The moonflower is a native of the tropical and sub-tropical parts of the American continent. It can be found all the way from northern Argentina to Mexico and Florida.

In Malta this species usually flowers between March and July but in gardens, where it is watered in summer, and in humid valley bottoms it can continue blooming until much later.

This plant is rich in sulfur, an element which is still used in vulcanisation of rubber, a process discovered by Charles Goodyear in 1839 but in southern America, the natives had been using the moonflower to vulcanise the latex of two plants to make bouncing rubber balls 3,000 years before him.

The moon flower belongs to the convolvulus or bindweed family the group in which we find many species of bindweeds which are known in Maltese as leblieb as well as the morning glories. It is in fact it is most closely related to the garden morning glory, the popular garden plant. 

A number of closely related species are used as food while others are used medicinally. Others contain psychoactive substances which were used in religious and spiritual ceremonies to induce an altered mental state similar to that from modern drugs such as LSD, opium and some mushrooms. 

This article was published in The Times on 14.09.11

The flower that blooms at 4 p.m.

Marvel of Peru (Mirabilis jalapa)

The marvel-of-Peru or as it is known the four o'clock flower gets its English names from its country of origin and from its habit of opening its flowers in the late afternoon. 

It is a widely cultivated plant that is also found growing wild in the Maltese countryside. In Maltese it is known as ħummejr. 

It is believed that this plant was first exported from the Peruvian Andes in 1540.

The plant grows along country roads and lanes and can be easily recognised by its large number of brightly coloured flowers. 

The flowers can be of different colours ranging from yellow to red with some flowers being white, striped or marked with different colours. Sometimes differently coloured flowers grow simultaneously from the same plant. More surprisingly the colour of the flowers growing on a particular plant change in colour as the plant matures. Thus a plant that starts off by having yellow flowers ends with dark pink flowers while a plant with white flowers starts producing light violet flowers.

The marvel of Peru flowers from late spring to early autumn. The flowers remain open well after sunset and are pollinated by long-tongued moths such as the hawkmoths which are attracted to the flowers by a strong sweet-smelling fragrance.

Parts of the plant are said to be very toxic and can have effects similar to that of LSD. They can cause digestive disorders and abortion. 

As with many poisonous plants this species also has medicinal value. It is used as a laxative, or to treat constipation and to expel intestinal worms. The flowers are used in food colouring particularly as a crimson dye which is used to colour cakes and jellies. 

This article was published in The Times on 07.09.11

The protein-rich pecan nut

Pecan (Carya illinoinensis)

The pecan, is a large tree indigenous to the southern states of America and Mexico. 

The Spaniards brought the tree to Europe in the 16th century. It was later planted in parts of Africa and Asia. This tree is best known for its fruit which is referred to as a pecan nut. In Malta the tree has been planted in a number of places including Buskett Gardens. Several large specimens can be seen along the path leading to the valley known as Wied il-Luq as well as in Wied il-Luq itself.

The pecan tree is a deciduous tree. The flowers, which are wind pollinated, appear in spring. Fertilised flowers produce an elongated fruit consisting of a green husk surrounding a structure known as a nut. As the fruit matures the husk becomes dark brown. In October and November the fruit drop onto the ground.

Although this species is not well known in Malta, some people know exactly when to visit Buskett gardens to collect pecan nuts. Pecan trees can produce large quantities of fruit and some manage to fill up whole baskets with this edible fruit.

In Maltese the pecan tree is known as siġra tal-pekan and the fruit is called ġewż tal-pekan.

The nuts can be eaten fresh. In other parts of the world they are used as an ingredient for several desserts the best known being the pecan pie.

The trees that grow at Buskett Gardens are very large. Although they must have been planted several decades ago they are likely to be around for many more as in good conditions pecan trees can live for more than 300 years.

Pecan nuts, like walnuts (to which they are related) are protein-rich and a good source of unsaturated fats. Eating pecans reduces the levels of LDL cholesterol and in women the risk of gallstones. 

This article was published in The Times on 31.08.11

Seed dispersal to germinate away from parent plant

Squirting cucumber (Ecballium elaterium)

Most plants have strategies to disperse their seeds which ensures that they germinate away from the parent plant. 

Seed dispersal is important because most plants have little or no mobility and thus would not be able to colonise new areas and habitats. 

Dispersal is also important as it takes seeds away from areas where they would face stiff competition from plants of the same species.

Plants use both internal and external forces to scatter their seeds far and wide. These include gravity, wind, water, explosive forces, and dispersion by animals including humans. Sometimes dispersal can be by more than one means thus a plant might allow a seed to fall onto the ground so that late it would be carried away by water. This often happens when coconuts fall to the ground along the coast and then carried away when the tide rises.

Some species can forcefully discharge their seeds long over large distances. The seed pods of the bear’s breaches (ħannewija) open with such force that they make a sound like a small pistol shot. 

The squirting cucumber, known in Maltese as faqqus il-ħmir, belongs to the cucumber family. During the summer months it forms a green-yellow fruit about the size of a large olive. 

It gets its name from the fact that when ripe the fruit ejects the seeds out together with a stream of thick liquid. When very ripe the slightest touch is enough for the fruit to explode. 

Children sometimes play with these fruit shooting the seeds and liquid at each other or throwing them in the direction of each other to see them explode and hitting each other with the seeds. 

The liquid that forms in the fruit is highly toxic but it has been used medicinally since classic times. It can act as a laxative and is known as a violent purgative. In parts of Cyprus and Turkey the juice is believed to cure cases of sinusitis, hepatitis and earache.

This article was published in The Times on 24.08.11

The field bindweed: A bright funnel-shaped attractive flower

Field bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis)

Maltese summers are characterized by high temperatures and lack of rain. Many plants survive this difficult time as seeds. This results in a dry brown countryside. Where it not for the thousands of trees that have been planted during the past fifty years or so it would be very difficult to find any green vegetation. 

Few species of plants are able to flower but those that do immediately catch one’s attention. One of these species is the field bindweed (leblieb tar-raba’). This species grows in fields and gardens from early summer to early autumn. It also grows in similar habitats such as patches of soil in centre strips and along roads.

The flowers of this plant can have different colours. They are usually white or pink but can also be striped white and pink. As practically no other plant is in flower the bright funnel-shaped flowers are very conspicuous and often attract one’s attention to their beauty. Flowers come in a variety of colours, shapes, sizes and scent but their beauty is not there to please us but to attract insects especially bees which are essential for pollination. 

The most attractive part of flowers are the petals which induce insects to land on them and to visit the nectaries from which they obtain nectar.

To make it easier for the insects to locate the nectaries, many flowers have lines or other markings called nectar guides which lead the bees to the centre of the flower where the flowers’ reproductive structures are found. 

Some of the guides are visible to humans while others can only be seen in ultraviolet light which is invisible to humans but which bees can detect. The nectar guides make it possible for the bees to collect nectar faster and more efficiently. This is advantageous for the plant because of more efficient pollination. 

This article was published in The Times on 10.08.11

Rare ferns

Several species of ferns have been recorded from the Maltese islands. Most are rare or very rare. On the other hand one species, the maiden hair fern, known in Maltese as tursin il-bir, is relatively common. It can be found in caves, wells, in valley bottoms and in damp courtyards of old buildings. 

Like many other ferns it thrives in humid habitat away from direct sunshine although some species such as the rusty-back fern (felċi tal ħitan tas-sejjieħ) can live in full sun and requires little humidity. This species is found in Western and Central Europe including the Mediterranean. In Malta it is very rare. The only time I saw it, it was growing on a large boulder in the middle of a dry valley in a spot not reached by the rays of the sun. In some parts of Europe it was used medicinally as a diuretic.

Most other ferns recorded in the Maltese island are also very rare with some species not having been seen for decades. Two or three species are aliens, that is, they were imported into Malta, probably as cultivated species, and can now be found growing wild.

Ferns are primitive plants. They have stems, leaves and roots like other vascular plants but instead of seeds they produce spores and thus do not have flowers. About 12,000 species are found in the world. About twelve have been recorded in the Maltese islands.

The oldest fern fossil records are from 360 million years ago. In geological terms this would be the beginning of the Carboniferous period which lasted until 299 million years ago. The name of this period comes from ‘carbo’ which is the Latin word for coal as during this period many of the coal beds were laid. 

The coal formed because of the appearance on earth of bark bearing trees which found the right climatic conditions for growth and possibly also because the animals and decomposing bacteria which can digest lignin, the main component of wood had not yet evolved with the result that the wood remained on the ground until it was covered by sediment and eventually changed into coal 

This article was published in The Times on 27/07/2011

The chicories' medicinal properties

Chicory (Cichorium intybus)

The chicories are perennial plants that add a touch of colour during the summer months. The most common is the chicory, ċikwejra in Maltese. Its light blue flowers can be seen between May and October. Anybody visiting the countryside during the warmer months is likely to see the plant protruding out of the dry vegetation. It grows throughout most of Europe although it is doubtful whether it is native in northern parts.

The spiny chicory is less common but can also be found with a little effort. In Maltese it is known as qanfuda meaning like a hedgehog an obvious reference to its shape and spines. The flowers which appear in May are very similar to the more common species but the flowering season is much shorter and they disappear by the end of July. This species is native to the Mediterranean region and is well adapted for the region’s hot dry summer.

The chicory has been cultivated in Europe for many centuries as a medicinal plant. In some countries, especially in poorer regions, the roots are baked and ground to be used as a substitute for coffee.

Chicory contains chemicals that can eliminate internal parasites such as worms and it is sometimes added to animal forage to help reduce internal worms. It is also said to have many other medicinal properties including as a treatment for gallstones, gastro-enteritis, sinusitis, and for cuts and bruises.

A related species, the endive, is also found in Europe. Several varieties of this species are cultivated in many countries including Malta although it does not seem to be as popular as other leafy vegetables such as lettuce and spinach even though it is known to be very healthy as it is rich in vitamins A and K, minerals, foliate and it is also high in fiber. It is available for sale in spring at about the same time as the globe artichoke and the two are often cooked together as their tastes compliment each other. 

This article was published in The Times on 18.05.2011

The harmful effects of herbicides

A few weeks ago I wrote that road side verges provide the right conditions for many species of flora and fauna. I also wrote that I had not seen herbicides being used to re­move this vegetation for many years and I was hoping that this practice had stopped. Last week I saw two teams in different parts of Malta using herbicides on pavements.

I do not understand this obsession to remove any living things from built up areas. Wild plants not only provide habitat and food for butterflies, bees and other insects but also have aesthetic value. They add colour to their drab surroundings and cover ugly concrete and rubbish. But, while accepting that some people cannot appreciate nature and use their power to anihilate it, it is unacceptable that herbicides are sprayed on pavements.

Herbicides are poisons that are used to kill vegetation. Many if not all of them can also harm humans, pets and wildlife. The toxicity of herbicides varies greatly as does the time taken for them to break down. Some are programmed to decompose after a relatively short time so that crops can be sown in soil after they have been sprayed but, while the breakdown products might not kill plants, there is no guarantee that these products do not harm humans and other animals.

Furthermore, anybody using a pavement has no option but to walk on poisoned ground. Children and pets are more vulnerable to poisons and their small size and the fact that they are closer to the ground makes absorption of poisons faster and easier. And even if children and pets had to be kept inside, a person walking on a poisoned pavement can unwittingly collect poison on his or her shoes and transfer it to his or her home where his children or pets come in contact with it.

There are indications that some herbicides are carcinogenic and, although acute toxicity comes only from exposure to large quantities of herbicides, even low doses might have long-term problems.

Using herbicides to remove vegetation might be the cheapest way to remove unwanted vegetation but our health and environment are worth more than that.

This article was published in The Times on 11.05.2011

The Scilly buttercup

Scilly buttercup (Ranunculus muricatus)

The Scilly buttercup is a species of buttercup which is sometimes also known as the spiny-fruit buttercup. It is native to Europe, but it can be found in many other places in the world, including parts of Africa, Australia, and the western and eastern United States, as an introduced species and agricultural and roadside weed. It grows in wet habitats, such as irrigation ditches. 

In Malta it is found in humid valley bottoms such as at Chadwick Lakes and Fiddien. It is an annual or sometimes biennial herb producing a mostly hairless stem up to half a meter long which may grow erect or decumbent along the ground.

The buttercups belong to a large genus of plants that can be found almost throughout the world. It consists of about 400 species some of which are terrestrial while others are aquatic. In the genus, known as Ranunculus, we also find the spearworts, water crowfoots and the lesser celendine. 

The name Ranunculus derives from the Latin words rana (frog) and ulus (little). This probably refers to many species being found near water, like frogs. Most buttercup species are poisonous when eaten by sheep, and other livestock but they are left alone because they have a bitter taste and have a blistering effect on the mouth caused by the poison.

Most of the species have bright yellow or white flowers. If the flowers are white they have a yellow center. In many species the petals are highly lustrous making it difficult to photograph them especially in direct sunlight.

In Malta at least 13 species have been recorded some of which are aquatic and can be found floating in pools and streams especially in the numerous small pools found in the rocky habitat known as garigue.

All Ranunculus species are poisonous when eaten fresh by cattle, horses and other livestock but their acrid taste and the blistering of the mouth caused by their poison means they are usually left uneaten. Poisoning can occur where buttercups are abundant in overgrazed fields where little other edible plant growth is left, and the animals eat them out of desperation. Symptoms include bloody diarrhea, excessive salivation, colic, and severe blistering of the mucous membranes and gastrointestinal tract. 

When Ranunculus plants are handled, naturally occurring ranunculin is broken down to form protoanemonin, which is known to cause contact dermatitis in humans and care should therefore be exercised in excessive handling of the plants. The toxins are degraded by drying, so hay containing dried buttercups is safe.

This article was published in The Times on 13.04.2011

The rockets

The white wall rocket which is also known as the white mustard, ġarġir abjad in Maltese, is a very common annual plant with small white flowers. 

It can be seen from early autumn to late spring in disturbed soils especially in fields. The closely related perennial wall rocket (ġarġir isfar) has yellow flowers. Were it not for the fact that both species grow in large numbers, sometimes covering whole patches of ground, they would easily be overlooked.

The rockets belong to the crucifer family, an important family which is sometimes also known as the mustard or cabbage family. The name crucifer means “cross-bearing” because the flowers have four petals arranged in the shape of a cross. 

Members of this family can be found growing on most continents especially in northern temperate regions although their stronghold are the countries surrounding the Mediterranean. 

The crucifer family consists of about 3,700 species among which are several that have been selectively bred to produces several vegetables including cabbages, turnips, radishes and rapeseed. The stocks (ġiżi) also form part of this family. Some species are also of medicinal importance.

One species in this family has been cultivated for a very long time and has been selectively bred into so many varieties that it now provides ten of the most common vegetables. These include the cabbages, cauliflowers, brussels sprouts, kohlrabi and broccoli among others. 

These vegetables are recommended as healthy foods because they are rich in vitamin C and soluble fibres as well as many nutrients and other chemicals which are known to have anti-cancer properties.

The best known species, the cabbage, is one of the oldest vegetables. In Greek times it was believed that the cabbage plant sprouted form the perspiration of Zeus and was given to women just before giving birth to induce a good flow of breast milk. The Romans used it as an antidote to alcohol so as to prevent a hangover. 

This article was published in The Times on 15.02.2011

The tree house leek first grown as a house plant

Tree house leek (Aeonium arboreum)

There are many species on non-indigenous plants in the Maltese countryside. 

These are native to other countries but have established themselves and become naturalised in the Maltese islands. Many of them were brought to Malta as garden plants 

The Cape sorrel, (ħaxixa ngliża) was grown at the Argotti Gardens in Floriana at the beginning of the nineteenth century . It is a native of South Africa but found the conditions in the Maltese countryside to be so favourable that after a short while it established itself in the Maltese countryside and became very common everywhere.

Another alien species is the tree house-leek which is known in Maltese as kalluwa. 

This species was first grown in Malta as a garden plant. It was often planted close to farmhouses and eventually started to grow wild in the Maltese countryside.

 It is now considered as a naturalised alien species. It is a succulent, subtropical member of the genus Aeonium. 

This name is derived from the ancient Greek word aionos which means immortal. This genus consists of about thirty-five species most of which are native to the Canary Islands. A few species are found in Madeira, Morocco and in eastern Africa. 

The climate of the Canary Islands is fairly similar to that of the Mediterranean and many of the species manage to grow very well in Mediterranean countries including Malta.

Between the end of December and late February the tree house-leek produces a large number of bright yellow flowers that grow on an ovoid structure. The leaves are attached to the main stem and grow wrapped around it to form a rosette.

The tree house-leek is the most commonly cultivated aeonium.

 In winter it produces numerous bright yellow flowers on compact ovoid structures. Several varieties and hybrids exist including some with brown or variegated leaves. In gardens they can grow up to two metres but in Malta I have never seen a plant more than one metre high.

This article was published in the Times on 1.12.10